Artefacts

Artefacts are an important type of archaeological evidence on any site. They have two main roles. Artefacts such as coins, pottery types, even the style of construction of the walls can tell you information about dating. This dating, tends to be relative i.e. older than/younger than other similar items initially, but when combined with typologies of many different artefacts on several sites, certain artefacts can give dates with an accuracy of around 20-50 years. In cases where there are a considerable number of standing walls such as at Portus, the artefacts on floors under the collapsed walls and even within the demolition rubble are important for understanding a site not only during its occupation but also when it was derelict or being pulled down. These artefacts can tell you if people were living, bringing up their children, or burying their dead there, whether they were rich or poor, Roman or foreign. It does not depend on the size of the artefact, more its presence, right down to the smallest sherd of pottery, and its location, which is why it is important to handle/record/conserve artefacts properly and collect everything on site.

There is no substitute for actually handling finds. This immeasurably helps with identification in the field and an understanding of construction and use of the objects. Fragments of objects also appear quite different from the whole but consistent handling of a range of fragments and hopefully whole objects brings comprehension. You will be constantly handling finds on site during excavation and finds processing.

Taphonomy or site processes often mean that although the object may have been recognisable to us when it went into the ground, the chemical and physical effects of long term storage underground may change its appearance through pressure, corrosion (drawing out the elements to the surface, resulting in rust for example or surface pitting, eventually destroying the object completely or leaving a hollow shell), delamination (surface peeling off) or concretion (other objects such as stones welded into the corrosion). These processes can continue after the object has left the ground unless treated properly.

We have put together a collection of the most common finds below as a guide to help with both initial identification, understanding and treatment.

Most common categories of finds

Ceramic building material [mattoni]

The majority of buildings on site were built with or faced with brick. Large tiles [tegula and imbrex] were used both to cover the roofs but some were also modified to create bricks. Many of the deposits on site have demolition rubble in them so these objects form a huge part of the deposits on the site. Because of the sheer quantity of brick and tile, not all of it is kept. All stamped brick and tile should go to Finds, including any unusually shaped CBM such as floor tiles or rounded column bricks. If you are unfamiliar with the bricks or in doubt, put it in your tray and ask a supervisor. Any large pieces of CBM should be put to one side for use in reconstruction, rather than on the spoil heap. When excavating you should write on the context sheet the CBM found, whether they are kept or not.

Ceramics [ceramica]

Apart from demolition rubble, this is the most common type of find on a Roman site. Pottery suffers from very little decay and destruction under the ground and therefore provides a great deal of information on all sites where it is present. Roman pottery is particularly hard fired and resilient. Pottery can be divided into a number of different but recognisable types based on size, shape, material:

• Storage and transport vessels: at Portus, these are generally large amphorae from North Africa, but also some wine and oil amphorae from Spain. Amphorae are known by the thick walls of the body, the large handles and the ‘spike’ or pointed base which meant that an amphora could not stand up on its own. Amphorae are sometimes stamped with makers or owners marks, or painted on to show contents.
• Utilitarian vessels: a diverse group of bowls and jugs also known a coarse ware, used for cooking and food preparation. These have little or no decoration and include types such as mortaria, a characteristically Roman form, with gravel embedded on the inside of the pot for grinding food.
• Table or fine wares: So called because the pottery is extremely fine with no visible inclusions. These include the distinctive glossy red slip wares called Terra Sigillata produced at several locations in the Mediterranean. In England, this is often called Samian ware after the Gaulish version. This has standardized shapes with or without moulded figurative decoration, and occasionally has stamped makers’ marks. Other thin-walled pottery has been found but is not common, and we have also had a few sherds of the rare Roman lead glazed pottery.
• Lamps: These were mass produced using moulds for the base and the upper part with a handle added later. The lamp was filled with oil, with a ‘spout’ in which a wick of fibres sat. They are often decorative with figures on the top including gods and animals. They can also have stamps and makers marks.

Marble- [Marmi]

A large number of fragments of marble have been found around the site in the past. These are generally decorative architectural elements including fragments of marble veneering, columns, pieces of sculpture, inscriptions, mosaics and opus sectile floors (geometric and figuratively shaped marble pieces). Certain marble types are easy to recognise such as cipollino and giallo antico but many of the others are only recognisable by the specialists. Many decorative stones are not technically marbles e.g. Travertine but they are grouped with them for organisational ease. All decorative stones are all kept for Finds.

Lithics (Stone)- [Litica]

The stone on site can be either a small find or structural.
Small finds. Small finds in stone may include mica, whetstones and fragments of small imported stones such as amber and carnelian.
Structural. Tufa is used extensively either as brick shaped blocks or as cone shaped pieces in the style of walling called Opus Reticulata. These are not kept for Finds but should be put to one side for use in reconstruction. Small pieces of Silex, a form of basalt, is often found but is not kept. When excavating you should write on the context sheet the lithics found, whether they are kept or not.

Plaster and wall coverings- [Intonaco]

Some hard wearing wall coverings such as Opus Signinum are found in situ as well as in demolition rubble at Portus. Samples should be kept as the broken pottery within the covering can be useful for dating. In addition at Portus, decorated wall plaster of the highest quality can be found in very small pieces in the rubble. This is fragile and need to be treated with care.

Glass- [Vetri]

Glass is generally found in very small pieces at Portus but can be decorative. Vessels form the majority of the finds and these are generally clear or pale green. In particular we find a lot of small drinking glasses. Corrosion of the glass leads to pitting, frosting and finally delamination. The second most common form of glass is glass tesserae from highly ornate mosaics. These come in a range of colours but corrosion on the surface of the glass can change its colour. Finally window glass, recognisable for being thicker, flat and having one side slightly rough, and beads are very rarely found. The corrosive nature of the soil makes the glass particularly fragile so it should be kept separate from heavier finds.

Bones and shells. [Ossa e conchiglie]

Bone can be recognised as being lighter and less dense than stone or pottery, and it can be different colours or burned.

• Human: Most of the bone on site is from human burials from the late Roman period. Burials are usually identifiable in advance of actually finding human bones, but there can also be loose human bones from ancient disturbed burials in any context. Special rules apply to the collection of human bones from a burial which will be closely supervised if it is excavated.
• Animal: Animal bones are often found on the site and are usually related to food as they come completely disarticulated. Occasionally we have found partial burials of animals. The nature of the soil means that preservation is not good on site making some bones friable so collect with care. Animal bone is used to make various small items such as needles, dice, hinges etc.
• Shells: There are a large number of shells on site, often clams and land snails. These are all collected as they can give a good indication of either the presence of water (very small clam shells are not collected for food, therefore they are naturally occurring) or the conditions of the land. Very occasionally your land snails may get up and walk out of your finds tray…

Metal- [Metallo]

Preservation of metal on site is generally poor with most items suffering from corrosion and/or concretions. The type of metal is generally known from its corrosion products (oxides) so iron is orange-brown or rust coloured, copper alloy is a pale green colour, silver is black and lead is white. Gold does not corrode and should come out looking like gold but is very rare at Portus. The most common types of finds are nails of varying sizes in either iron or copper alloy and lead sheet. In addition we have copper alloy bindings and chain links for both ornamental and structural use. Jewellery is very rare at Portus. All of the metal is brittle and fragile so please do not attempt to open any folded sheet that you may find or try to remove or open any concretions. Wash your hands after handling lead.

Coins – [Monete]

We have found a number of coins on site, often third century radiates. All coins are important for dating and should be bagged separately and given a special find number on site with a 3D location.

Slag- [Scoria]

There is some evidence for metal and glass working on site. There may be isolated lumps of slag (generally bubbly or looking like solidified liquid in either metal or glass) or there may be a collection of more irregular lumps together with charcoal, burnt pottery and bricks. Collect everything.

Charcoal [Carbone di legne]

Charcoal has the potential to tell us about the use of fuel and the trees grown in the vicinity so collect all fragments unless they are too small to pick up. Charcoal is one of only organic substances that survives archaeologically. However, there may be occasions where local conditions have resulted in the survival of organics and in these cases a soil sample should be collected so it can be looked at closely.

Wood [Legna]

We only expect Roman wood in waterlogged contexts, but it is likely to also be encountered close to the surface if it is more modern.

Taking finds off site

When you bring finds off site, this is what you do with them. It is helpful to collect small things in a bag while you dig rather than sorting at the end of the day as the dirt will collect at the bottom of the tray and you will miss things. Remember: the trays (cassette) have holes in the sides. And most importantly, context is everything so make sure that every tray and every bag has a context number on it!

Cassette (trays), goes on metal racking shelves on site,
waiting for jet washing:

• Coarse Ceramic >3cm
• Brick
• Marble >3cm

Plastic bag to Casale – Inside the front door will be a tray to put bags of unwashed small finds in:

• Thin Ceramic (jet wash will break it)
• Glazed Ceramic
• Small Ceramic <3cm
• Tesserae
• Wall plaster – face down in tray
• Glass
• Shell and bone (deteriorates if left in water, i.e. rain)
• Metal (does not get washed)

REMEMBER CONTEXT NUMBER ON EVERYTHING!

Finds Processing

Different types of finds require different methods of processing, some of which is done on site, some done by specialists. This is the current processing schedule:

• Brick and tile: Washed on site, processed in casale/finds hut (see below)
• Ceramics including lamps: Washed on site or in casale. Marked with PTXI and context on broken edge (or interior face if necessary). Passed to specialist for analysis
• Charcoal: Bagged. Passed to specialist for analysis
• Environmental: Passed to specialist for analysis
• Faunal remains (Animal bones and shells): Washed in casale. Passed to specialist for analysis
• Glass: Washed very delicately if dirty in casale. Passed to specialist for analysis
• Lithics: Washed on site or in casale, processed in casale (see below)
• Slag and metal working residues: Washed in casale, processed in casale (see below)
• Marble: Washed on site or in casale. Passed to specialist for analysis
• Metal: Processed in casale (see below)
• Plaster: Processed in casale (see below)
• Various and other types: Rare so assumed processed in casale

Anything recorded in the casale is recorded and given a ticket showing an ARK number, context found in, year of excavation. Everything processed in the casale is photographed. Not all specialists will be on site during the excavation so items for them will be packed for later analysis,

Jet wash Guidelines

Strata at Portus can produce huge quantities of pottery, marble and brick stamps. As Roman pottery is usually very robust and unglazed, the Italian system is to use a jet wash to clean both materials subject to the selection criteria set out below. The jet wash is carried out close to the edge of the site on large metal grids where the objects are also left to dry.

1. DO NOT PUT ON BONE, SHELL, PLASTER, GLASS, TESSERAE, SMALL SHERDS (< 2cm), DECORATED FINEWARE OR ANY SHERD WHICH MAY HAVE WRITING OR PAINTED DECORATION.
2. Combine trays of the same context as much as possible to minimise wasted space on the grid
3. Layout POT, BRICKS, MARBLE etc with large sherds at the back, small ones at the front if possible. If there are large bricks, put them over the joins in the frame where there is the most support
4. Make sure the context label goes on the rack – tied on if possible, and written in permanent pen
5. Screw long hose onto site tap tightly
6. Put Jubilee clip over end of hose and push hose onto front of jet washer. Screw jubilee clip tight over end of hose. Turn on water at tap to check for leaks.
7. Plug in jet washer to generator (may need an adaptor, depending on the generator)
8. Turn the generator switch to on, open fuel line (turn until vertical), open choke (dot with slash through), wait a couple of seconds and pull cord like hell.
9. Once the generator has started, move the choke back to the ‘run’ position
10. Turn the switch on the jet washer to on – and pull trigger on nozzle. You may need to shake it while pulling the trigger until you get the full blast.
11. Wash by getting close (c.10cm away) and move in horizontal stripes so the dirt is pushed back onto the next set of sherds to be washed. If all the sherds are small, it is better to work from the back as they will naturally ping backwards as they are done.
12. Take your time and be thorough.
13. Occasionally wash from a horizontal position to wash the sides of all the marble, bricks and sherds of pottery (this will not happen if you only wash vertically). You will be writing on the broken edge of the sherds so they need to be clean
14. Give the sideboards of the grids and all the sherds a general spray down before moving onto the next grid
15. Turn the objects over once they have been washed once, generally shuffling along a little to create a small boundary between what has been turned and what has not.
16. Wash again
17. Check that the artefacts are clean. Problem areas are the sides of marble and brick, handles, rims and spikes – they always need more work. Move them under the jet until they are clean
18. For small contexts it is possible to wash things in cassetti but hold onto the label before you do it (and remove small items…)
19. Wash the dirty trays
20. Leave to dry
21. Collect at the end of the day armed with clean cassette (trays), labels and large plastic bags

Recording Guidelines for Finds

We will record certain types of finds (see above) in a database called the ARK which will be operating through an intranet on site so several people can access it at once. The principle behind recording finds on the Ark is that the finds are given a unique number which links them with the context in which they are found. Once the object(s) are registered, a longer and fuller description is entered together with interpretation.

Starting up the ARK:

Open up the Firefox internet browser and go to the ARK login page (not specified here as the server address may change). You will be given a User Name and Password to login with.

From the home page, choose the plus icon from the Finds menu and this will take you to the Data Entry page to register finds. The number of the find is constructed of two parts. Part1 is the material e.g. 1=brick/tile, 7=glass, 13=metal etc. Part2 is the 4 digit number assigned in a sequence starting with 0001. So the first piece of metal, for example, is numbered 130001. Categories not in use are Mosaic (record by material) and Tile (record under Brick).

As the numbers are recorded sequentially, you may need to find the last number used of a particular material to start recording another piece. If so, click on Record View, enter the number of the material AFTER the one you are looking for plus 0001 and then use the back arrow to get the last entry of the material before. BEWARE however that there are some rogue numbers at the beginnings and ends of the sequences where the number has not been entered properly (make sure you click back three times to make sure there is a complete run of numbers!)

PTXI (the site code) is entered automatically. If you find you’ve entered the find number wrong after you’ve saved it, tell Penny and she will change it to the correct number.

If you get an error message involving the context, then check to see if the context exists and if not, enter the context in the context register in the same way that you enter finds (but you already know the number!). As a description of the context, enter “TO DO” as a reminder to the team to fill in the context page.

Once you have registered the find, click on the small button that looks like a sheet of paper next to the record and it will take you through to the main entry for the find.

The first box that will be open is the “Site Nr”. These are special find numbers where the object has been individually marked on site and given a special number so that its find spot can be given a 3d grid reference. The object usually arrives on its own with the number on the label as well as the context.

It is important to use any terminology proposed here because it will be used to search the database in the future. Additional information is, however always welcome.

Process for Each Find Type

Brick and tile

ARK:

Register number with short description usually including:

• Circular epigraphic stamp with medium/small orbiculus
• Anepigraphic dot stamp shape
• Finger smear shape
• Animal print
• Circular stamp

Use “tile” instead of brick if you can see the upstand or it is a flue tile
Click ‘enter’
Full description to include:

• Number of rings of epigraphy
• Any figures in centre e.g. dog, wheat
• Further details on dot stamps and finger smears
• Number of circles in stamp
• Height of upstand of tile from the upper face of the tile or if there is a scar from where it was removed

Condition: generally OK
Material is brick with colour e.g. pale red brick, deep red brick, yellow brick etc. Make a note of any inclusions in the fabric such as grog (ground up old bricks), basalt, shell, travertine etc
Length is longest measurement, width next, height is thickness of brick excluding any mortar.
Diameter not used
Interpretation is usually
Brick stamp
Animal print
Finger smear
To do:

• photo
• PTM for epigraphy, dots and animal prints only

Described by:

After ARK:

NUMBER ARTEFACT ITSELF: e.g. PTXI + context number + ark number (1****) +SF number
WRITE OUT TICKET INCLUDING SF NUMBER, PUT IN WITH OBJECT IN CASSETTE
PLACE CASSETTE IN ‘TO BE PHOTOGRAPHED’ PILE
ONCE PHOTOGRAPHED, SEPARATE OUT STAMPS TO BE PTM’D.

Coins

DON’T WASH, BRUSH OR DRY OUT

ARK:

Register number with short description usually including:

• Small CuA coin
• Tiny CuA coin
• Or add other description

Click ‘enter’
Description to include:
Circular or subcircular, clipped or broken
Any visible design on obverse (head) or reverse (tail)
Condition: Concreted or corroded and to what level
Material is type of metal: Copper alloy (written out), silver, gold
Length is longest measurement, width next, height is thickness not including any concretion
Diameter is only if the coin looks perfectly circular (Unlikely)
Interpretation is usually: Small CuA coin or something more creative
To do: photo and PTM
Described by:

After ARK:

DON’T write on coins. WRAP COIN IN ACID FREE TISSUE PAPER. WRITE OUT TICKET, PUT IN WITH COIN IN BAG. Add Site Number to tickets as “SF***” as well as the Ark Find number.
MAKE MANY SMALL HOLES IN THE BAG SO IT CAN BREATHE. PLACE IN A TUPPERWARE OR A SMALL CRYSTAL BOX.
PLACE BOX IN ‘TO BE PHOTOGRAPHED’ PILE
ONCE PHOTOGRAPHED, PUT TO BE PTM’D

Metal

DON’T WASH

ARK:

Register number with short description usually including:
Iron nail
CuA tack
Or other
Click ‘enter’
Description:
If nail or tack to include:

• Shape of head: round or faceted; domed or flat
• Section of shank: square or circular
• Size of shank at head
• Length of shank from head to tip
• If shank broken: Whether there are protuberances on the underside of head

If not nail, describe what you see

Condition: Concreted or corroded and to what level
Material is type of metal: Copper alloy (written out), Iron, Lead
Length is longest measurement, width next, height may be perpendicular to width
Diameter is unlikely to be used
Interpretation is usually: Iron nail, CuA tack or something more creative
To do: photo, unless there is low relief which also needs PTM.
Described by:

After ARK:

DON’T write on metal. WRAP METAL IN ACID FREE TISSUE PAPER.
WRITE OUT TICKET INCLUDING sf NUMBER, PUT IN WITH METAL IN BAG.
MAKE MANY SMALL HOLES IN THE BAG SO IT CAN BREATHE.
PLACE IN A TUPPERWARE OR A SMALL CRYSTAL BOX.
PLACE BOX IN ‘TO BE PHOTOGRAPHED’ PILE.
Wash your hands after handling lead.

Lithics

ARK:

Register number with short description
Click ‘enter’
Description to include:

• Completeness
• Finely worked or roughed out

Condition: Concreted or corroded and to what level
Material is type of stone (general)
Length is longest measurement, width next, height may be perpendicular to width
Diameter is unlikely to be used
Interpretation is up to you
To do: photo and PTM where necessary
Described by:

After ARK:

NUMBER ARTEFACT ITSELF: e.g. PTXI + context number + ark find number number + SF NUMBER
WRITE OUT TICKET PUT IN WITH OBJECT IN BAG IN CASSETTE
PLACE CASSETTE IN ‘TO BE PHOTOGRAPHED’ PILE

Plaster

DON’T wash the plaster but it may need a good brushing if it is stucco

ARK:

Register number with short description
Click ‘enter’
Description to include:

• Polychrome
• Moulded
• The colour if it is a single colour
• How many layers of plaster there are, their thickness or height, colour, fineness:
• Topcoat – maybe only 1mm thick
• Intermediate coat
• Basecoat or mortar
• Inclusions – stone, brick chips etc

Condition: surface flaking, concretions etc
Material: Wall plaster, Opus signinum, concrete tanking
Length is longest measurement, width next, height may be perpendicular to width. For multiple pieces of the same colour, give the max and min
Interpretation should include the words “decorative wall plaster” if coloured. If topcoat has a pink colour leeching down into the white put the word “battenburg”.

After ARK:

DON’T write on plaster.
WRITE OUT TICKET INCLUDING SF NUMBER, PUT IN WITH OBJECT IN BAG OR LOOSE IF TOO MANY PIECES IN CASSETTE. If loose in cassette, place plaster face down
PLACE CASSETTE IN ‘TO BE PHOTOGRAPHED’ PILE